Modern
Europe
The nations of Europe constitute the most integrated area in the world. Several unique institutions bind these once disparate, and historically warring, nations together.
The
European
Union
The vast majority of nations in Europe are member states of the European Union. The EU's most successful effort at integration has been economic. At its most fundamental level, the EU is a customs union that has not only abolished internal tariffs, but also created a common labor market. Citizens of one member state can work, live, and even vote freely in any country.
EU
Hopefuls
These nations are on their way to signing accession, or membership, treaties with the European Union. Their likelihood of success depends on a decade-long process to bring their political, social, legal, economic, and regulatory standards up to those prescribed by the EU.
The
Misfits
These countries have the political and economic standards for near-automatic EU-accession. Their citizens, however, have been reluctant to join for various reasons.
EU
Growth
The EU is big. Its population is over half a billion and its economy is the largest in the world. However, it wasn't always like this ...
The
Inner Six
The European Economic Community, the predecessor organization to the EU, was formed with the Treaty of Rome in 1957 with only six members.
The
Original 12
Six other nations joined and, by 1992, formed the European Union through the Maastricht Treaty. It created a framework for further integration and expansion in anticipation for the newly independent eastern-bloc countries eventually joining.
The
Western 15
By 1995, several other developed economies joined the union.
Eastern
Expansion
2004 saw the largest geographic and population expansion by far. The EU welcomed eight former Soviet and Soviet-allied countries. Bringing formerly undemocratic, Communist nations into the union was seen as a great achievement at the time.
Now
Currently, the European Union boasts 28 members with Croatia joining most recently in 2013.
Brexit
...but for some reason, the United Kingdom voted to leave the Union in 2016. It was the first time that the union shrank because a sovereign nation quit the club.
The Euro
Perhaps most synonomous with European integration is its single currency. EU member states voluntarily gave up their respective currencies such as the French Franc, Italian Lira, and German Mark in favor of the Euro. It's currently the second most traded currency in the world after the US Dollar.
The
Eurozone
... but only these EU nations officially use the Euro. Collectively they constitute what is known as the Eurozone.
Future
Eurozone
These nations are obligated under accession treaties to eventually forego their national currencies and join the single currency.
Currency
Opt-outs
Depending on who you ask, these nations got a break. The United Kingdom and Denmark are exempt from participating in the single currency - a concession they garnered as founding members of the EU.
Benefits
& Risks
The single currency proved beneficial in many respects. Reduced financial costs facilitated increased trade amongst members. Greater investment confidence in the supposed stability of the Euro reduced borrowing costs especially for smaller economies. But there have also been drawbacks, particularly with nations' ability to service their debt ...
National
Debt 2008
All nations in the EU entered the financial crisis of late 2008 with what appeared to be manageable levels of debt.
National
Debt 2016
... in 2016 - well after economies should have been growing - European nations, in particular the Eurozone, experienced growing debt to GDP burdens.
The Euro
Handcuffs
Participating in the single currency meant relinquishing control over monetary policy to the European Central Bank. A nation with monetary sovereignty can control the supply of its currency, allowing it to influence exchange rates in response to trade or fiscal conditions. For example, the United Kingdom might devalue its currency, the Pound, to lower the cost of exports and lessen its debt burden. Eurozone debt, as seen here, has outpaced that of EU members not participating in the Euro. Countries in red experienced faster debt growth than nations in yellow.
The
Schengen
Area
To complement the EU's abolition of trade barriers, there are no internal border controls (under normal circumstances) between member states. Participating countries have effectively outsourced their immigration to EU authorities. With almost all EU nations participating in the program, the free movement of people is a cherished pillar of continental integration.
Schengen
Holdouts
Once again, the United Kingdom stands out as an exception. Ireland, which once had a contentious relationship with the UK's Northern Ireland, followed suit. These two nations instead formed the Common Travel Area, a separate agreement to prevent a divided Ireland and to facilitate peace.
Schengen's
Popularity
Even non-EU states see the benefits of open borders for travel. These countries participate in Schengen while shying away from full EU-member status.
Schengen Expansion
Eventual expansion of the free movement area to all members is guaranteed by the EU, but more recent members are regularly put on a delayed timeline. This is done to appease governments of richer member states who fear increased immigration levels from newly admitted states.
Schengen Results
While the agreement facilitated invaluable cultural exchange among citizens of participating countries, it has also led to greater difficulty addressing immigration from outside the EU. Similar to how nations lost a degree of independence to the Euro, states delegated border controls to the EU, therefore making one nation's problem a club-wide challenge.
Migrant
Crisis
In 2015, several factors contributed to an unprecedented influx of migrants. Macedonia eased onward journeys to the EU. This provided a cheaper, safer route than crossing the Mediterranean, which had been popular up until that point. At the same time, Syria's government eased emmigration to rid itself of political opponents in its civil war. Southern European nations, especially Greece and Bulgaria, received the the vast majority of new arrivals into the Schengen Area.
Asylum
Applicants
... free travel within the Schengen Area, however, allowed migrants to move several countries beyond their entry point. Applications for ayslum visas skyrocketed in many countries, most notably in Hungary and Germany.
...by
Population
Some nations were more overwhelmed than others, especially considering the number of applications received relative to population size.
NATO
Joint security under the North Atlantic Treaty Organization represents the final pillar of European integration. Its success is perhaps the most remarkable of integration efforts owing to the fact that, since its inception, there has never been a war between the historically belligerent great powers of Europe.
NATO's
Origins
In 1949, several European nations along with the United States and Canada became founding NATO members. Necessitated by the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union and buttressed by American military commitment, NATO's core mission is to provide mutual security. If one nation is attacked, the treaty binds all signatories to come to its defense.
NATO
Expansion
By the end of the Cold War in 1991, NATO had expanded to include most of western Europe.
Eastern
Expansion
The collapse of the Soviet Union and its client states in Eastern Europe left the future of the alliance in doubt. Although initially hesitant, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization accepted formerly communist nations in eastern Europe, drawing protest from Russia, the area's historic great power. The prospect of more ex-Soviet countries joining the security alliance grew ...
The
Ukraine
Conflict
Although precipitated by the progress of an EU-Ukraine association agreement, the prospect of Ukraine being absorbed into the European Union or even NATO proved untenable for Russia. Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula and invaded eastern Ukraine with the help of local separatists in 2014.